On this page you will find answers to three questions.

• What is ethnography for the missionary?
• Why should a cross-cultural missionary use ethnography?
• How should a cross-cultural missionary use ethnography?

While some additional references and examples of ethnographic studies for deeper dives will be found on this page, this material reflects the focus of SEND International’s “Member Orientation Training” (MOP 201 and 202). The page reflects the focus of developing ethnographic skills, especially for the first-term, cross-cultural worker. Hence, it is not an exhaustive description of ethnography, but rather a practical application of ethnographic skills for the cross-cultural worker. In that sense, this could be considered a subset of ethnography proper.

In broad terms, ethnography is a qualitative research tool used in many spheres including (but not limited to) anthropology, sociology, missiology, business research, and even marketing. Most often, ethnography involves taking a learning posture using participant observation and interviews.

For the missionary, at a minimum, ethnography is descriptive, and invites the the missionary to be humble, and curious. In his book, Participant Observation, James Spradley says, “Ethnography is the work of describing a culture. The central aim of ethnography is to understand another way of life from the native point of view. …Rather than studying people, ethnography means learning from people.​” This means the ethnographer describes what he or she observes with a humble and curious attitude.

It is a pathway to becoming an acceptable outsider. When we are an acceptable outsider, we have the relationships, networks, and cultural knowledge to be an effective ambassador of Christ in this cultural context. As believing, cross cultural workers, we don’t build relationships in a transactional way. We don’t become friends so we can share the gospel. That makes the people our project. We build relationships so we can be better ambassadors for Christ. The more we become an acceptable outsider, the more insight we have into the culture and community because we are being transformed into a member of that community – the acceptable outsider. Hopefully, as God is transforming us, this results in a natural ability to represent the kingdom of God in that context, and in a way that is a pleasing aroma of the Gospel to those around us.

In this short video, SEND U facilitator answers the question, “What is Ethnography for the Missionary.”¹

At a minimum, a cross-cultural missionary should use ethnography to gain insight into the culture. This is where we learn from the people. Our understanding will help us contextualize the gospel message, so it is more understandable in the host culture context. As we enter into a new culture, our cultural distance is a huge barrier to relationships. Ethnography helps us turn those cultural barriers into assets. Finally, as we learn from the culture and build relationships, we become an acceptable outsider in the community. This is the goal and as a result, we will be better ambassadors for Christ in that particular community.

In this short video, SEND U facilitator Alfie Mosse answers the question, “Why should a cross-cultural missionary use ethnography?”¹

There is a basic cycle to ethnography that never ends. We start with purposeful observation, then we make tentative interpretations. After making tentative interpretations, we try to verify our conclusions. Next, we may need to make modifications to our interpretations. This may include informants but not necessarily. Next, we possibly incorporate our new understanding into our worldview – realizing that everything is dynamic. Finally, we repeat the process.

In SEND International MOP training, we focus on participant observation. That means that, knowing that our participation impacts the event, we still participate in events, make observations, and test our tentative conclusions to build our understanding. Spradley lays out a basic six step process.

• First: Choose a social situation to observe: The basic unit for observation is a single social setting made up of a place, actors, and activities. Some examples include club meeting, regular family dinner, church service, bible study, game night, birthday, holiday gathering, etc.
• Second: Identify something specific you would like to understand better. This is sometimes called a cultural domain or cultural theme in a domain. Some examples include what qualifies as work? What is a good husband, child, mother, daughter, grandmother, etc.? What is a good friend? And many others.
• Third: Prepare to Observe the Activity. Identify a social setting that you have access to as an outsider. Write down one or two open questions to maybe ask someone during the activity. Identify a possible informal informant who will be at the event and can answer some informal questions at the event.
• Fourth: Go to the event and make observations.
• Fifth: Make tentative conclusions. Based on your observations and notes make some tentative conclusions and a plan to test these conclusions. The most common way of testing conclusions is attending a similar event and/or informant interviews.
• Sixth: Repeat.

Resources for how to use ethnography as a cross-cultural worker:

• Read excerpts from “Participant Observations as a Culture Learning Tool.”¹
• Read the full “Participant Observations as a Cultural Learning Tool.“¹
• Read Informants¹ , H. Russell Bernard.

• Ethnography as Qualitative Research by Dr. Lorin M. Mayo
• Definition of Ethnography by “The Sweet Spot.”
• The Hidden Obvious by Dr. ellen Isaacs. This TED Talk by Dr. Ellen Isaacs presents an interesting application of ethnography in the business and technology world.

• The virtuous Quechua Woman:¹ This is an example of an ethnographic study.
• Orality and Time Review:¹ Article by Sherwood Lingenfelter, Gustov Elof, and Koloma Makewin, and L. Jeremiah Dauara
• The Nacerima:¹ A paradoxical and hyperbolic ethnographic or sociological report.

• What is Ethnography:¹ 2002 article by Tony L. Whitehead
• Why do Ethnography as a Missionary:¹ An address given to SEND International by Donald Gregorenko in June 2017,
• Informants¹ , H. Russell Bernard.

• James P. Spradley, Participant Observation New York: Holt, Rinehart and Wilson, 1980.
• James P. Spradley, The Ethnographic Interview, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Wilson, 1979.
• Emerson, Robert; Fretz, Rachel; Shaw, Linda; Writing Ethnographic Field Notes, 2nd Ed., University of Chicago Press, 2011.
• Van Maanen, John, Tales of the Field: On Writing Ethnographies, University of Chicago Press, 2011.
• Collier, Paul, The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries are Failing and What can be Done About It, Oxford University Press, 2008
• Constable, Nicole (Editor), Guest People: Hakka Identity in China and Abroad (Studies on Ethnic Groups in China), University of Washington Press, 1996.
• Christofferson, Ethan, Negotiating Identity: Exploring Tensions between Being Hakka and Being Christian in Northwestern Taiwan, American Society of Missiology Monograph, 2012.

• Learning Culture through Purposeful Observation (Exploring Culture pt. 1), Grow2Serve
• Contextualization and Culture Study (Exploring Culture pt. 2), Grow2Serve
• Foundations of Culture Study (Exploring Culture pt. 3), Grow2Serve

• by: Alphonse Mosse and Kimberly Samalca
• on: November 6, 2025

Footnotes

¹ Resource available only to SEND International members.